The harmful effects of second-hand smoke have been
recorded since 1928.1 In the 1970s, scientific interest in
potential adverse health effects of second-hand smoke
expanded.2,3 Since then, evidence about ill health because
of second-hand smoke has accumulated from many
studies done in different parts of the world. However,
second-hand smoke remains a common indoor air
pollutant in many regions. Comprehensive legislation to
protect non-smokers from exposure to second-hand smoke
in all indoor workplaces and public places has been
implemented in some countries and subnational
jurisdictions, but 93% of the world’s population is still
living in countries not covered by fully smoke-free public
health regulations.4–8
Knowledge about the links between second-hand
smoke and specific diseases has been summarised in
comprehensive assessments or reviews by the International
Agency for Research on Cancer,9 WHO,10 the
California Environmental Protection Agency,11 and the
US Surgeon General.12 Studies of the effects of smokefree
laws have drawn attention to the importance of
second-hand smoke as a preventable cause of disease
and disability. The International Agency for Research on
Cancer reported in 2009 that “wide-ranging bans on
smoking in the workplace are followed by as much as a
10–20% reduction in acute coronary events in the first
year post-ban”.13,14 The 171 countries that are parties to the
WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
“recognize that scientific evidence has unequivocally
established that exposure to tobacco smoke causes death,
disease, and disability”.15 Furthermore, they recognise
that there is no safe level of exposure to tobacco smoke
and therefore recommend effective measures to provide
protection from exposure to tobacco smoke, as envisioned
by Article 8 of the WHO Framework Convention. The
guidelines for implementation
of Article 8 stipulate that
smoking and tobacco smoke be totally eliminated in all
indoor workplaces, indoor public places, and on public
transport, and be eliminated as appropriate in other
public places.16
Some country-specific studies of the health effects
attributable to second-hand smoke have been reported;17–19
however, this study provides the first assessment of the
worldwide burden of disease from second-hand smoke.
Information about the magnitude and distribution of the
burden of disease from second-hand smoke is particularly
important for policy makers to plan preventive strategies.
We aimed to estimate the worldwide burden of disease
attributable to second-hand smoke, measured as deaths
and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) lost for children
and adult non-smokers.
Senin, 18 April 2011
passive smokers
Background Exposure to second-hand smoke is common in many countries but the magnitude of the problem
worldwide is poorly described. We aimed to estimate the worldwide exposure to second-hand smoke and its burden
of disease in children and adult non-smokers in 2004.
Methods The burden of disease from second-hand smoke was estimated as deaths and disability-adjusted life-years
(DALYs) for children and adult non-smokers. The calculations were based on disease-specific relative risk estimates
and area-specific estimates of the proportion of people exposed to second-hand smoke, by comparative risk assessment
methods, with data from 192 countries during 2004.
Findings Worldwide, 40% of children, 33% of male non-smokers, and 35% of female non-smokers were exposed to
second-hand smoke in 2004. This exposure was estimated to have caused 379 000 deaths from ischaemic heart
disease, 165 000 from lower respiratory infections, 36 900 from asthma, and 21 400 from lung cancer. 603 000 deaths
were attributable to second-hand smoke in 2004, which was about 1·0% of worldwide mortality. 47% of deaths from
second-hand smoke occurred in women, 28% in children, and 26% in men. DALYs lost because of exposure to secondhand
smoke amounted to 10·9 million, which was about 0·7% of total worldwide burden of diseases in DALYs in
2004. 61% of DALYs were in children. The largest disease burdens were from lower respiratory infections in children
younger than 5 years (5 939 000), ischaemic heart disease in adults (2 836 000), and asthma in adults (1 246 000) and
children (651 000).
Interpretation These estimates of worldwide burden of disease attributable to second-hand smoke suggest that
substantial health gains could be made by extending effective public health and clinical interventions to reduce passive
smoking worldwide.
worldwide is poorly described. We aimed to estimate the worldwide exposure to second-hand smoke and its burden
of disease in children and adult non-smokers in 2004.
Methods The burden of disease from second-hand smoke was estimated as deaths and disability-adjusted life-years
(DALYs) for children and adult non-smokers. The calculations were based on disease-specific relative risk estimates
and area-specific estimates of the proportion of people exposed to second-hand smoke, by comparative risk assessment
methods, with data from 192 countries during 2004.
Findings Worldwide, 40% of children, 33% of male non-smokers, and 35% of female non-smokers were exposed to
second-hand smoke in 2004. This exposure was estimated to have caused 379 000 deaths from ischaemic heart
disease, 165 000 from lower respiratory infections, 36 900 from asthma, and 21 400 from lung cancer. 603 000 deaths
were attributable to second-hand smoke in 2004, which was about 1·0% of worldwide mortality. 47% of deaths from
second-hand smoke occurred in women, 28% in children, and 26% in men. DALYs lost because of exposure to secondhand
smoke amounted to 10·9 million, which was about 0·7% of total worldwide burden of diseases in DALYs in
2004. 61% of DALYs were in children. The largest disease burdens were from lower respiratory infections in children
younger than 5 years (5 939 000), ischaemic heart disease in adults (2 836 000), and asthma in adults (1 246 000) and
children (651 000).
Interpretation These estimates of worldwide burden of disease attributable to second-hand smoke suggest that
substantial health gains could be made by extending effective public health and clinical interventions to reduce passive
smoking worldwide.
Sabtu, 16 April 2011
sports
A. TYPES OF SPORTS
1. Aerobics is: Sport is done on an ongoing basiswhere the oxygen needs of the body can still be met. For example:Jogging, gymnastics, swimming, cycling.
2. Anaerabik are: Exercise in which oxygen demand is notcan be met entirely by the body. For example: Weightlifting, running100 M sprint, tennis court, badminton.
B. BENEFITS OF EXERCISE
1. Improving the working and functioning of the heart, lung and blood vesselscharacterized by:
a. Resting pulse rate decreased.
b. Contents sekuncup increases.
c. Capacity increases.
d. Reduced lactic acid buildup.
e. Improving the collateral blood vessels.f. Increase HDL Cholesterol.g. Reduce atherosclerosis.
2. Increasing muscle strength and bone density that is markedat:
1. Aerobics is: Sport is done on an ongoing basiswhere the oxygen needs of the body can still be met. For example:Jogging, gymnastics, swimming, cycling.
2. Anaerabik are: Exercise in which oxygen demand is notcan be met entirely by the body. For example: Weightlifting, running100 M sprint, tennis court, badminton.
B. BENEFITS OF EXERCISE
1. Improving the working and functioning of the heart, lung and blood vesselscharacterized by:
a. Resting pulse rate decreased.
b. Contents sekuncup increases.
c. Capacity increases.
d. Reduced lactic acid buildup.
e. Improving the collateral blood vessels.f. Increase HDL Cholesterol.g. Reduce atherosclerosis.
2. Increasing muscle strength and bone density that is markedat:
Child Psychology In Social Life
Development phase difference in the world of social status of children in friendship and get friends to play in the school environment and outside the school environment, in contrast to the sense of friendship that occurs in adults, for adults friendship is a bonding relationship with others, in which trust , understanding, sacrifice and help each other will be woven into a long period, while the world's children are not, as seen in adults, the world's children is not woven friendship for a long time, sometimes when there are problems which small, braided friendship will be disconnected.
There are two methods of research to find out the meaning of friendship and friends play in the world of children:
1. By the way we ask a few questions, like;Who was near you? why would he? what you like from him?
2. By the way we talk about friendship, then the two friends are fighting because they can not solve the problem properly.From both methods, the method number two we'll probably get the information, then we ask questions to the child; Must be how the situation resolved?From a lot of information given the child, we will get us to the conclusion that in some phases, such as;First Phase;
There are two methods of research to find out the meaning of friendship and friends play in the world of children:
1. By the way we ask a few questions, like;Who was near you? why would he? what you like from him?
2. By the way we talk about friendship, then the two friends are fighting because they can not solve the problem properly.From both methods, the method number two we'll probably get the information, then we ask questions to the child; Must be how the situation resolved?From a lot of information given the child, we will get us to the conclusion that in some phases, such as;First Phase;
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